LOW-COST HEARING AID

Commercially available hearing aids are quite costly. Here is an inexpensive hearing aid circuit that uses just four transistors and a few passive components. On moving power switch S to ‘on’ position, the condenser microphone detects the sound signal, which is amplified by transistors T1 and T2. Now the amplified signal passes through coupling capacitor C3 to the base of transistor T3. The signal is further amplified by pnp transistor T4 to drive a low impedance earphone. bg8j9xp2ym


Capacitors C4 and C5 are the power supply decoupling capacitors. The circuit can be easily assembled on a small, general-purpose PCB or a Vero board. It operates off a 3V DC supply. For this, you may use two small 1.5V cells. Keep switch S to ‘off’ state when the circuit is not in use. To increase the sensitivity of the condenser microphone, house it inside a small tube. This circuit costs around Rs 65.

Magnetic Levitation

How Levitation Works


If you hold two permanent magnets close together, you see that one of them will jump strongly toward (or away) from the other. In 1842, Samuel Earnshaw expressed the perversity of inanimate magnetic objects in his theorem. It explains this frustrating behavior will always prevent you from suspending one permanent magnet above or below another, no matter how one arranges the two magnets. However, an active control circuit can get around this problem by rapidly adjusting the magnet's strength.


Click this image to see closeup of antigravity relay (38K) The general principle is straight forward: An electromagnet pulls a ball upward while a light beam measures the exact position of the ball's top edge. The magnet's lifting force is adjusted according to position.


As less light is detected, the circuit reduces the electromagnet's current. With less current, the lifting effect is weaker and the ball can move downward until the light beam is less blocked. Voila! The ball stays centered on the detector! It is a small distance across the photodetector, perhaps a millimeter or two, but this is sufficient to measure small changes in position. Of course, if the ball is removed the coil runs at full power. And conversely, if the light beam is blocked the coil is turned completely off.



Click here to see image of breadboard circuit (54K) This device uses two photodetectors: the "signal" detector looks for an interruption in the light beam, and the "reference" detector measures the background light. The circuit subtracts one signal from the other to determine the ball's position. The use of two detectors is my small contribution to advance the art of levitation. This design automatically compensates for changes in ambient light, and eliminates a manually

Magnetic Levitation Parts List

Resistors

Resistors listed in order by value are 1/4-watt, 5% unless otherwise indicated.

• 300 ohms R11
• 500 ohms R2
• 1,000 ohms R1, R12, R13, R14
• 1,500 ohms R10
• 10,000 ohms R4
• 11,000 ohms R6
• 22,000 ohms R8
• 56,000 ohms R3
• 100,000 ohms R5
• 150,000 ohms R7
• 370,000 ohms R9
• 50K linear taper VR1 (and VR2 opt.)

Capacitors

• C1,C2 47 uF electrolytic
• C3 0.1 uF ceramic or tantalum (must not be electrolytic)

Semiconductors

• Q1,Q2 OP505A infrared photo detector, or equivalent
• Q3 2N3055 NPN power transistor
• LED1,2,4 Red light-emitting diode
• LED 3 Infrared LED emitter
• IC1-4 LM741 op amp, Radio Shack 276-007
• D1 1N4001 (or 1N4004) silicon diode, 50v (or more) peak inverse voltage

Miscellaneous

• +/- 15 vdc power supply, 1 amp
• 9 vdc power supply, 1 amp
• Breadboard wiring pad (or printed circuit board by Amadeus)
• 18-ga stranded wire for power
• Solid hook-up wire
• 24-ga (or thicker) magnet wire for lifting coil
• 6-terminal barrier strip (2 ea.)
• Wood for base and frame
• Alternatives for the LM741 Op-Amp

I chose the LM741 op-amp out of nostalgia and convenience. It was an extremely successful and common op-amp about twenty years ago.

There are lots of modern choices for dual- and quad-package op-amps. By using a package with multiple op-amps, you can reduce the number of parts and lower the cost. For example, you could use a single quad-package op-amp instead of four separate 741s. This would allow a very small printed circuit board to contain all the electronics!

Electronic Stethoscope

Stethoscopes are not only useful for doctors, but home mechanics, exterminators, spying and any number of other uses. Standard stethoscopes provide no amplification which limits their use. This circuit uses op-amps to greatly amplify a standard stethoscope, and includes a low pass filter to remove background noise.


Parts

Part Total Qty. Description

R1 ---------------1 ----------- 10K 1/4W Resistor
R2 ---------------1 ----------- 2.2K 1/4W Resistor
R4 ---------------1------------ 47K 1/4W Resistor
R5, R6, R7 -------3------------ 33K 1/4W Resistor
R8 ---------------1 ----------- 56K 1/4W Resistor
R10 --------------1 ----------- 4.7K 1/4W Resistor
R11 --------------1 ------------ 2.2K to 10K Audio Taper Pot
R12 --------------1------------ 330K 1/4W Resistor
R13, R15, R16---- 3------------ 1K 1/4W Resistor
R14 --------------1 ----------- 3.9 Ohm 1/4W Resistor
C1, C8 -----------2 ---------- 470uF 16V Electrolytic Capacitor
C2 ---------------1-----------4.7uF 16V Electrolytic Capacitor
C3, C4 -----------2----------- 0.047uF 50V Metalized Plastic Film Capacitor
C5 ---------------1----------- 0.1uF 50V Ceramic Disc Capacitor
C6, C7 -----------2----------- 1000uF 16V Electrolytic Capacitor
U1 ---------------1 ----------- TL072 Low Noise Dual Op-Amp
U4 ---------------1----------- 741 Op-Amp
U5 ---------------1----------- LM386 Audio Power Amp
MIC --------------1 -----------Two Wire Electret Microphone
J1 ----------------1 -----------1/8" Stereo Headphone Jack
Batt1, Batt2 ------2----------- 9V Alkaline Battery
LED --------------1 ----------- Red/Green Dual Colour Two Wire LED
SW ---------------1 ----------- DPST Switch
MISC -------------1 ----------- Stethoscope head or jar lid, rubber sleeve for microphone, board, wire, battery clips, knob for R11

Notes

• MIC is an assembly made out of a stethoscope head and electret mic. Cut the head off the stethoscope and use a small piece of rubber tube to join the nipple on the head to the mic.
• Be careful with the volume, as excess noise levels may damage your ears.
• R11 is the volume control.
• The circuit marked as optional is not required for the main circuit to function. The optional circuit blinks an LED to the heartbeat as it is heard by the microphone. Even if the optional circuit is not included, sound will still be heard via the headphone jack.

Muscular Bio-Stimulator

Particularly suitable for cellulite treatment
3V battery supply, portable set

Device purpose:

This is a small, portable set, designed for those aiming at look improvement. The Bio-Stimulator provides muscles' stimulation and invigoration but, mainly, it could be an aid in removing cellulite.


Tape the electrodes to the skin at both ends of the chosen muscle and rotate P1 knob slowly until a light itch sensation is perceived. Each session should last about 30 - 40 minutes.

Parts:

• P1______________4K7 Linear Potentiometer
• R1____________180K 1/4W Resistor
• R2______________1K8 1/4W Resistor (see Notes)
• R3______________2K2 1/4W Resistor
• R4____________100R 1/4W Resistor
• C1____________100nF 63V Polyester Capacitor
• C2____________100µF 25V Electrolytic Capacitor
• D1______________LED Red 5mm.
• D2___________1N4007 1000V 1A Diode
• Q1,Q2_________BC327 45V 800mA PNP Transistors
• IC1____________7555 or TS555CN CMos Timer IC
• T1_____________220V Primary, 12V Secondary 1.2VA Mains transformer (see Notes)
• SW1____________SPST Switch (Ganged with P1)
• B1_____________3V Battery (two 1.5V AA or AAA cells in series etc.)

Warning:

The use of this device is forbidden to Pace-Maker bearers and pregnant women.
Do not place the electrodes on cuts, wounds, injuries or varices.
Obviously we can't claim or prove any therapeutic effectiveness for this device.

Circuit operation:

IC1 generates 150µSec. pulses at about 80Hz frequency. Q1 acts as a buffer and Q2 inverts the polarity of the pulses and drives the Transformer. The amplitude of the output pulses is set by P1 and approximately displayed by the brightness of LED D1. D2 protects Q2 against high voltage peaks generated by T1 inductance during switching.

Notes:

• T1 is a small mains transformer 220 to 12V @ 100 or 150mA. It must be reverse connected i.e. the 12V secondary winding across Q2 Collector and negative ground, and the 220V primary winding to output electrodes.
• Output voltage is about 60V positive and 150V negative but output current is so small that there is no electric-shock danger.
• In any case P1 should be operated by the "patient", starting with the knob fully counter-clockwise, then rotating it slowly clockwise until the LED starts to illuminate. Stop rotating the knob when a light itch sensation is perceived.
• Best knob position is usually near the center of its range.
• In some cases a greater pulse duration can be more effective in cellulite treatment. Try changing R2 to 5K6 or 10K maximum: stronger pulses will be easily perceived and the LED will shine more brightly.
• Electrodes can be obtained by small metal plates connected to the output of the circuit via usual electric wire and can be taped to the skin. In some cases, moistening them with little water has proven useful.
• SW1 should be ganged to P1 to avoid abrupt voltage peaks on the "patient's" body at switch-on, but a stand alone SPST switch will work quite well, provided you remember to set P1 knob fully counter-clockwise at switch-on.
• Current drawing of this circuit is about 1mA @ 3V DC.
• Some commercial sets have four, six or eight output electrodes. To obtain this you can retain the part of the circuit comprising IC1, R1, R2, C1, C2, SW1 and B1. Other parts in the diagram (i.e. P1, R3, R4, D1, D2, Q2 & T1) can be doubled, trebled or quadrupled. Added potentiometers and R3 series resistors must be wired in parallel and all connected across Emitter of Q1 and positive supply.
• Commercial sets have frequently a built-in 30 minutes timer. For this purpose you can use the Timed Beeper the Bedside Lamp Timer or the Jogging Timer circuits available on this Website, adjusting the timing components to suit your needs.

Automated Crib Lights

Device purpose:

This circuit is intended to drive the various lights decorating the crib prepared during Christmas season at many homes in Latin Countries, especially for children delight, in order to obtain realistic light-effects.


Features:

• Alternating day and night with lights gradually dimming from full-on to full-off and the opposite.
• Slow turn on of model-houses interior as night approaches, and slow turn off as sun rises, with presettable intensity, thus imitating candles' light for a more realistic effect.
• Flickering ever-running circuit driving bulbs for fires, firesides, lanterns effects etc.
• Total cycle duration: 2 minutes. Day duration: 1 minute, 15 seconds. Night duration: 45 seconds. (All values are approximate).

Parts:

• R1___________150K 1/4W Resistor
• R2,R9,R14_____22K 1/4W Resistors
• R3,R11_______220K 1/4W Resistors
• R4,R12________10K 1/4W Resistors
• R5___________100K 1/2W Trimmer Cermet
• R6,R7,R13,R15__1R 1/4W Resistors
• R8____________33K 1/4W Resistor
• R10__________270K 1/4W Resistor
• R16___________47R 1/4W Resistor
• C1,C4________100nF 63V Polyester Capacitors
• C2,C6_________10µF 25V Electrolytic Capacitors
• C3,C5________100µF 25V Electrolytic Capacitors
• D1-D3_______1N4148 75V 150mA Diodes
• IC1___________4060 14 stage ripple counter and oscillator IC
• IC2__________LM324 Low power Quad Op-Amp IC
• IC3__________78L12 12V 100mA Voltage regulator IC
• Q1,Q3,Q5_____BC238 25V 100mA NPN Transistors
• Q2,Q4,Q6_____BD681 100V 4A NPN Darlington Transistors
• J1___________Miniature input socket,
• suited for commercial plug-in variable voltage power supplies
• J2-J5________Two ways output sockets

Load requirements:

• Input J1 is connected to a commercial wall plug-in power supply transformer adapter with variable output settled to 12-15Vdc, and a required minimum output capability of 600mA @ 12V. Using a good number of bulbs the output capability must reach about 1.5A.
• Output J2 is connected to a permanently-on 12V 1W blue bulb(s) for night effect.
• Output J3 is connected to several 12V 2.2W bulbs in parallel for sunlight effect. Max. output current: 1.2A (i.e. 6-7 bulbs).
• Output J4 is connected to several 12V 1W or 1/2W micro-bulbs in parallel for house-interiors lights. Max. output current: 600mA (i.e. 7-8 1W bulbs, doubling in number if 1/2W).
• Output J5 is connected to one or several 12V 1W or 1/2W micro-bulbs in parallel for fires, firesides, lanterns effects etc. Max. output current: 600mA (bulbs total number same as above).
• All outputs are current limited, and short-proof for a reasonable lapse of time.

Circuit operation:

IC1 oscillates at a frequency calculated to obtain a pin 2 level change around every minute. IC2A is then enabled to slowly charge and discharge C5 through R10 during a 2 minutes period. IC1 pin 9 drives D2, R3 & C4, generating a sawtooth for IC2C & IC2D comparators. IC2D comparing the voltage at pin 13 with the sawtooth, generates a squarewave with variable mark-space ratio driving the output darlington Q2 for daylight bulbs. IC2B changes its output at a threshold voltage settled by R8 & R9, activating IC2C & Q4 that act like IC2D & Q2 driving model-houses bulbs as evening approaches and turning them off at dawn. R11 & C6 provide slow turn on and off and R5 sets the basic brightness of these bulbs. IC1 pin 7 drives the output darlington Q6 for flickering fires bulbs and R16 prevents them to turn off completely for a more realistic effect. Q1, Q3, Q5 and associated Base resistors provide current limiting.

Notes:

• Total period length can be varied changing C1 and/or R1 values.
• Day-night ratio can be varied changing R10 value slightly.
• Threshold voltage of turn on and off of model-houses lights can be varied changing slightly R8 and/or R9 values.
• Turn on and off speed of model-houses lights can be varied changing R11 value.
• Current limiting can be varied changing Q2, Q4 & Q6 Emitter resistors.
• Heatsinks for Q2, Q4 & Q6 are needed if current limits are increased.

Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulator

Current generated flows through clips placed on the earlobes Output current adjustable from 80 to 600 microAmperes

Device purpose:

Owing to the recent launching in Europe of Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) portable sets, we have been "Electronically Stimulated" in designing a similar circuit for the sake of Hobbyists. CES is the most popular technique for electrically boosting brain power, and has long been prescribed by doctors, mainly in the USA, for therapeutic reasons, including the treatment of anxiety, depression, insomnia, and chemical dependency. CES units generate an adjustable current (80 to 600 microAmperes) that flows through clips placed on the earlobes. The waveform of this device is a 400 milliseconds positive pulse followed by a negative one of the same duration, then a pause of 1.2 seconds. The main frequency is 0.5 Hz, i.e. a double pulse every 2 seconds. Some people report that this kind of minute specialized electrical impulses contributes to achieve a relaxed state that leaves the mind alert.


Obviously we can't claim or prove any therapeutic effectiveness for this device, but if you are interested in trying it, the circuit is so cheap and so simple to build that an attempt can be made with quite no harm.

Parts:

• R1_____________1M5 1/4W Resistor
• R2____________15K 1/4W Resistor
• R3___________100K Linear Potentiometer
• R4_____________2K2 1/4W Resistor
• C1___________330nF 63V Polyester Capacitor
• C2___________100µF 25V Electrolytic Capacitor
• D1_____________3mm. Red LED
• IC1___________7555 or TS555CN CMos Timer IC
• IC2___________4017 Decade counter with 10 decoded outputs IC
• SW1___________SPST Slider Switch
• B1______________9V PP3 Battery
• Clip for PP3 Battery
• Two Earclips with wires (see notes)

Circuit operation:

IC1 forms a narrow pulse, 2.5Hz oscillator feeding IC2. This chip generates the various timings for the output pulses. Output is taken at pins 2 & 3 to easily obtain negative going pulses also. Current output is limited to 600µA by R2 and can be regulated from 80 to 600µA by means of R3. The LED flashes every 2 seconds signaling proper operation and can also be used for setting purposes. It can be omitted together with R4, greatly increasing battery life.

Notes:

• In order to obtain a more precise frequency setting take R1=1M2 and add a 500K trimmer in series with it.
• In this case use a frequency meter to read 2.5Hz at pin 3 of IC1, or an oscilloscope to read 400msec pulses at pins 2, 3 or 10, adjusting the added trimmer.
• A simpler setting can be made adjusting the trimmer to count exactly a LED flash every 2 seconds.
• Earclips can be made with little plastic clips and cementing the end of the wire in a position suited to make good contact with earlobes.
• Ultra-simple earclips can be made using a thin copper foil with rounded corners 4 cm. long and 1.5 cm. wide, soldering the wire end in the center, and then folding the foil in two parts holding the earlobes.
• To ensure a better current transfer, this kind of devices usually has felt pads moistened with a conducting solution interposed between clips and skin.
• Commercial sets have frequently a built-in timer. Timing sessions last usually 20 minutes to 1 hour. For this purpose you can use the Timed Beeper the Bedside Lamp Timer or the Jogging Timer circuits available on this website, adjusting the timing components in order to suit your needs.

Active Antenna HF/VHF/UHF, 3-3000MHz

If you have a shortwave or high-frequency receiver or scanner that is struggling to capture signals with a short, whip antenna, and you'd like the kind of performance that a 60-foot 'longwire' antenna can provide but lack the space to put one up, consider building the AA-7 HF/VHF/UHF Active Antenna described in this article. The AA-7 is a relatively simple antenna that is designed to amplify signals from 3 to 3000 MegaHertz, including three recognized ranges: 3-30Mhz high-frequency (HF) signals; 3-300Mhz very-high frequency (VHF) signals; 300-3000MHz ultra-high (UHF) frequency signals. Those bands are typically occupied by shortwave, ham, government, and commercial radio signals.


Active Antennas:

In its simplest form, an active antenna uses a small whip antenna that feeds incoming RF to a pre-amplifier, whose output is then connected to the antenna input of a receiver. Unless specifically designed otherwise, all active antennas are intended for receive-only operation, and thus should not be used with transceivers; transmitting into an active antenna will probably destroy its active components. A well designed broadband active antenna consider field strength of the desired signal (measured in microvolts per meter of antenna length), atmospheric and other noise, diameter of the antenna, radiation resistance, and antenna reactance at various frequencies, plus the efficiency and noise figure of the amplifier circuit itself.


Circuit Description:



Figure shows the schematic diagram of the AA-7, which contains only two active elements; Q1 (an MFE201 N-Channel dual-gate MOSFET) and Q2 (a 2SC2570 NPN VHF silicon transistor). Those transistors provide the basis of two independent, switchable RF pre-amplifiers. Two double-pole double-throw (DPDT) switches play a major role in this operation of the AA-7. Switch S1 is used to select one of the two pre-amplifier circuits (either HF or VHF/UHF). Switch 2 is used to turn off the power to the circuit, while coupling the incoming RF directly to the input of the receiver. That gives the receiver non-amplified access to the auxiliary antenna jack, at J1, as well as the on-board telescoping whip antenna. With switch S2 in its power-on position, the input and output jacks are disconnected and B1 (a 9 volt battery) is connected to the circuit. With switch S1 in the position shown in the schematic, incoming RF is directed to the HF pre-amp circuit built around Q1 (an MFE201 N-Channel dual-gate MOSFET). The HF pre-amp operates with an exceptionally low noise level, and is ideal for copying weak CW and singe-side band signals. When S1 is switched to the other position, the captured signal is coupled to the VHF/UHF pre-amp built around Q2 (a 2SC2570 NPN VHF silicon transistor), which has excellent VHF through microwave characteristics. With the on-board whip antenna adjustable to resonance through much of the VHF-UHF region (length in feet = 234 divide by the frequency in MHz), the VHF/UHF mode is ideal for indoor and portable use with VHF scanners and other receivers. Either mode can be used when tuning 3-30 MHz HF signals. The VHF/UHF pre-amp offers higher gain than the HF pre-amp, but also has a higher noise level. You can easily choose either amplifier for copying any signal; of interest--just try both positions. The RF gain control (R5) can be used to trim the output of either amplifier.

Caution: The AA-7 is not intended for transmitting operation (be it Ham, Maritime, or CB); if it is used with a transceiver of any kind, make sure it is not possible to transmit by accidentally pressing a mike button or CW keyer. Transmitting RF into the AA-7 is likely to ruin one or both of the transistors in the circuit.

Parts List and other components:

Semiconductors:

Q1 = MFE201, SK3991, or NTE454. N-Channel, dual-gate MOSFET, TO-72 (see text)
Q2 = 2SC2570, NTE107. Silicon RF IF/Amp, NPN transistor (see text)
Note: If you use the NTE107 as a replacement, make sure to insert it correctly
into the pcb. The orientation is different than as shown on the parts layout
diagram. (e-c-b seen front view for NTE107). See this Data Sheet

Resistors:

All Resistors are 5%, 1/4-watt
R1 = 1 Mega Ohm
R2 = 220K
R3,R6 = 100K
R4 = 100 ohm
R5 = 10K potentiometer (pc mount)
Capacitors:

C1,C2,C5,C6 = 0.01uF, ceramic disc
C3 = 100pF ceramic disc
C4 = 4.7 to 10uF, 16WVDC, radial lead electrolytic

Additional Parts & Materials:

B1 = 9-volt alkaline battery
S1,S2 = DPDT PC mount pushbutton switch
J1,J2 = PC mount RCA jack
ANT1 = Telescoping whip antenna (screw mount)
MISC = PCB materials, enclosure, enclosure, battery holder and connector,
wire, solder, etc.

Motorcycle Battery Charger

This 3A charger was originally designed to work with small batteries like those used in motorcycles. In principle it can be used to charge car batteries also but will take a lot longer.
The charger below charges a battery with a constant current to 14.1 volt. When this level is reached, the current charge drops automatically to a safer level (13.6V) and keeps charging at this slower rate untill the LED lights up indicating a fully charged battery. This project looks very much alike with the Gel cell II charger elsewhere posted in the 'Circuits' section. The difference is the IC, namely a LM1458 instead of a LM301A. Nice job Jan!



Description:

The LM350 is an adjustable voltage regulator and keeps the voltage between points C and B at 1.25 Volt. By adding a 1K resistor between point B and gnd (-) you can, as it were, lift up the output voltage. To accurately control the output voltage we add to this resistor, in series, a 2K adjustable 10-turn potentiometer. As soon as a battery is connected a current flow occurs, controlled by the right halve of the LM1458. The current through the 0.1 ohm resistor causes a voltage drop. This drop is compared with the voltage on the walker of 100-ohm pot. The moment this drop is greater than the one adjusted with the potmeter will cause the output of the LM1458 IC to go low and a small current starts to flow thru the diode and this in effect will reduce the current through the series resistors 1K + 2Kpot. The current is hereby stabilized.

The point between C and B is devided by three resistors; 2.2 ohm, 100 ohm pot, and the 150 ohm. 2.2 ohm and the 100 ohm potmeter are connected to the non-inverting input (+) of the LM1458 IC. The inverting input (-) is connected to the 0.1 ohm wire-wound resistor in series with the output. As long as the voltage drop, caused by the current-flow over this resistor is greater than the voltage drop over the 2.2 ohm resistor the output of the LM1458 will stay high and in turn block the BC558 transistor. But as soon as the charge current falls below a specific value the 1458 will go low and turn on this transistor which wich activate the LED. At the same time a small current will flow thru the 'Rx' resistor, which will cause that the output voltage of the charger switches to 13.6 Volt. This is a very safe output voltage, and does not cause overcharging to the battery and remains fully charged (trickle).

Rx should be an experimental value determined below; a mathematically calculation is possible but the exact value is determined by the tolerances of your specific components.

The voltage regulator LM350 has to dissipate a lot of energy so make sure to mount it on a large cooling fin. (e.i. 3.3°C/Watt) Diode 1N4001 over the input/output is necessary to prevent damage to the regulator in case the input voltage gets interrupted.

The LM350 can be substituted with a NTE970, and the BC558B with a NTE159 if you wish.
The adjustments for this charger are really simple and the only thing needed is digital multimeter. The LM1458 should NOT be in the socket while doing the first adjustment. When no battery is connected there is no current flow thru the 0.1 ohm resistor and therefore pulling the output low. So no IC yet in the socket. Do NOT connect a battery also. I know that is obvious to most of us, but some people... :-)

Okay, here we go:

1. Connect the multimeter (set for Volt DC) to the '+' and '-' battery output and adjust with the 2k trimpot the output voltage to 14.1 Volt.
2. Switch the power off. Discharge the capacitors (short them out with a piece of wire).
3. Now insert the LM1458 IC carefully (check no pins are bend underneath the chip).
4. Switch the power back on and make the resistor marked Rx such a value that the output voltage reads 13.6 volt exactly.
5. Switch the multimeter to 'Amp-dc'. Turn the 100-ohm trimpot all the way CCW. Connect the 'to-be-charged-battery' (e.i. NOT a fully charged battery) and turn back the trimpot untill the current load is 0.1 X the battery capacity (max 3A). Example: A 16Amp battery adjusting to 1.6A. If you don't have an Amp meter on your multimeter you can use the 2-volt setting on your meter and connect it over the 0.1 ohm resistor. The current is volt devided by 0.1, so for 3A the meter should read 0.3 volt.

That's it. To get the Rx value you could also use a trimpot until you get the 13.6volt and then read the ohm's value of the trimpot and replace with a resistor. In my opinion this resistor should be a metalfilm type at 1 or 2% tolerance.

The Technical bits:

For those of you interested in how the value of essential components was calculated, read on. You may be able to design your own charger for use with a different current or voltage (like 6-volt).
Calculations origin from the voltage between points C and B of the LM350 regulator. When a resistor is connected between these two points, enough current starts to flow that the voltage over this resistor measures 1.25 volt. In our case, the resistor total is 2.2 + 100 + 150 =252.2 ohm. Because we deal with very small currents the calculations are performed in milliamps and the calculations of resistance in Kilo-Ohms. Thus, the current thru this resistor is 1.25 / 0.2522 = 4.9564 mA. The same current also flows thru the 1K & 2K series resistors. We want the output voltage to be 14.1 volt, meaning the voltage drop over these series resistors must be 14.1 - 1.25 = 12.85 Volt.

The total resistance value thus must be 12.85 / 4.9564 = 2.5926 Ohms. To enable us to adjust it to this value, one of the resistors is chosen as a 10-turn trimpot (trimmer potentiometer). Together with the 1K in series (making it a total of 3K)we can adjust it to this correct value.

The Rx value is calculated this way; In this scenario we like to have a output voltage of 13.6 volt, in other words, the voltage on the connection point between the 1K/2Kpot should be 13.6 - 1.25 = 12.35 volt. This means that the current thru the 'voltage-divider' will be 12.35 / 2.5926 = 4.7635 mA and the leftover current should be 4.9564 - 4.7635 = 0.1929 mA thru Rx and also cause a voltage drop of 12.35 - 2.78 = 9.57 volt. Measuring this calculated value at the base of the BC558 transistor was 2.78 volt after the output of the LM1458 had become low. With the current of 0.1929 mA the result has become9.47 / 0.1929 = 49.611 Kilo-Ohm. A resistor of 47K would come close enough. Ofcourse you could also use a 50K trimpot to adjust the value even more accurately. The 1K5 (1500 Ohm) resistor in series with the LED is to limit the current thru the LED below 20 mA.

The only thing left is to calculate the value of the series resistor which determines the switch-over from charge to float condition. This occurs when the voltage drop over the 0.1 ohm (wire-wound) resistor at the positive leg smaller is than over the 2.2 ohm resistor. This value is 2.2 x 4.9564 = 10.9 mV. The resistance is 0.1 ohm, to get a voltage drop over this resistor of 10.9 mV is the current 10.9 x 0.1 = 109 mA. The second this charge current becomes lower then 109 mA, the LM1458 triggers over to the float condition.
The adjustment with the 100-ohm trimpot determines the maximum charge current. The voltage on the walker of this trimpot varies between 10.9 mV - 506.54 mV. The current is this way made adjustable between 0.1A - 5A, but we should not go that far because the LM350K can not handle anything over 3Amp. If we chose a trimpot with a value of 50 ohm, then on the other hand the 3A can not be obtained. So, careful adjustment is the remedy. Take your time!

With this information it is a simple task to calculate the dissipation values of the resistors. In other words, the product of the resistance multiplied with the current in square (I2xR).

The only resistor which gets it difficult is the 0.1 ohm, but then again, not by much 3 x 3 x 0.1 = 0.9 Watt.
Rest us to calculate the power. For that we have add a couple of voltages. We have the input voltage of 14.1, the voltage drop over the resistor, 0.1 x 3 = 0.33 volt, and 3 volt minimum over the LM1458 for proper function, total 17.43 volt. The transformer provides 18V (effective). With ideal rectifying this should total 18 x 1.41 = 25.38 volt. There are however losses via the diodes and bridge rectifier so there is about 23.88 volt remaining. Not much tolerance to play with, on the other hand, too much causes energy loss in the form of heat anyway.
The voltage drop over the buffer capacitor may not be lower than 17.43 volt, meaning, the ripple voltage may reach about 23.88 - 17.43 = 6.45 volt. By double-fase rectifying is the ripple voltage equal to I/(2xfxC) whereby I is the discharge current, f is the supply frequentie and C is capacity of the buffer capacitor in Farad. Exchanging places this would give C = 3/(2x50x6.45) = 0.004651 Farad, or 4651 uF. A standard value of 4700 uF with a minimum voltage value of about 35-40 Volt. The other capacitor is not very critical and is only there to kill small voltage spikes which could influence the operation of this charger otherwise.

The bridge rectifier gets a good workout also and it is therefore recommended to chose NOT a too light a unit. A 5A rectifier is often too small, better to take a 8 or 10A type. These are readily available everywhere.

Last but not least, the transformer. The buffer capacitor has approximately 25 volt accros. The current is 3A. This calculates to a power of 25 x 3 = 75 watt. This transformer has its own problems with powerloss (naturely occuring) and so a unit of about 80 watt is acceptable.
Never attempt to charge a 6 volt battery with a 12 volt charger; you are asking for trouble. Good luck all!

Foam Cutting Power Supply

After seeing other modelers building their model wings from plastic foam, I decided that I wanted to do the same. Building your wings from foam covered with 1/16 in. balsa can produce a strong and light wing that could be difficult to duplicate with the standard balsa rib construction, especially if the wing had a duel tapered, symmetrical airfoil. The standard way to cut foam is with the Hot Wire technique, using steel or nichrome wire through which an electrical current flows to heat the wire.


However, the methods that many use to get the wire hot leaves something to be desired. The most common method I saw used was to connect a 12volt battery charger to 4 or 5 feet of nichrome wire which was tied to some kind of a bow. Using the variable charging rate, you could control (to a limited degree) the temperature of the wire and thus the speed of the cut. But if you cannot accurately control the heat, you'll get many poor cuts. Some have connected a series of light bulbs in line with the wall service of 115 volts AC.

It works, but WOW, is it ever dangerous! Terrible shock hazard! I've even seen some connect the nichrome wire across a 12 volt car battery, also very dangerous. Over the years there have been several schematics listed in the model magazine for building a hot wire foam cutter power supply. All of them worked, I'm sure. Some were very simple, but left little heat control, and others were complex and expensive. Heat control is the secret for making good foam cuts. Also a good transformer is important for removing the electrical shock hazard that threatens the modeler in his shop. A good current limiting feature also makes the device safe from high current burns, which some auto mechanics have suffered when working with large 12 volt batteries.


The following circuit is a simplification of several older designs. This design uses readily available parts, is easy to build, has total temperature control for both a long bow (48") and a short bow (24"), and has served me well for the last 15 years. Many of the planes that I fly are my own design and I build most of them with foam wings, foam turtle decks, foam stabs, etc, usually with dual tapered, symmetrical designs. The short bow is valuable for sculpting foam pieces into various shapes, as it can be held in one hand and the foam sample in the other.



The first step in building one of these foam cutters is to take the Bill of Materials to your local Radio Shack and search for the parts. I picked this source because of shopping convenience and the total cost is a little above $30. Also get a small copper clad circuit board (CB), about 3 by 4 inches or larger in size. If you chose not to make the circuit board, you can solder the parts together using electrical stand-offs. The first order of business is to mount the switches, the potentiometer, the Red and Black electrical posts (#274-662), and the red indicator light on the front panel of the component box according to the picture and illustration. Next mount the transformer (#273-1512), fuse holder (#270-364), and electrical cord (#278-1255) in the box as shown in photo. Put some rubber feet on the bottom of the box (also from Radio Shack) so that it won't scratch your wife's end table when you take it to show her what a great craftsman you are.


The circuit is a simple AC Triac voltage control circuit similar to the ones used to control house lamps. The transformer provides the electrical isolation the makes this item safe to operate. The voltage at the bow will tingle a little, but will not harm the operator. The OFF/ON switch is a simple s.p.s.t. switch (#275-651). The "Long/Short" Bow selector switch is the same part number. Across the primary side of the transformer is mounted an indicator "ON" lamp (#272-712) which will light up when the unit is turned on. The temperature control is through the 5k ohm potentiometer R2 (#271-1714). The Triac gate current is controlled by R3, a 470 ohm, 1 watt resistor. This resistor is not part of radio Shack's inventory, therefore it may be required to solder two 1k ohm, 10 watt resistors in parallel. The capacitor, C1, is a 0.22microF disk (#272-1070). The 5 ohm, 20 watt resistor R1 is made of two 10 ohm, 10 watt resistors in parallel. They are large ceramic resistors mounted side by side. These resistors drop the voltage when the short 24" bow is being used. These resistors will get hot, don't touch!

Enclosed in this article is a actual size drawing of the circuit board (CB, 2.5" x 4"). Cut out this drawing and use it as a template, and paste it on the side opposite of the copper on the CB (circuit board) with some rubber cement. Next use a center punch to mark the center of each hole. Then drill the holes with the CB held tightly to some wood backing, making the four corner holes a 1/8" in dia and all the rest about 1/16" in dia. These smaller holes will be where you solder the components and wires. The larger holes are for the mounting bolts to hold the CB to the case. Cut the CB to the exact size as shown on the template (2.5" x 4"). Then, print out the copper side drawing and paste it on the copper side of the board. Use a sharp X-acto knife to remove thin strips of copper as shown. This will isolate the copper soldering pads from one another. Remove the paper. Insert the components in the CB on the side opposite the copper. Where the component leads stick out on the copper side, solder the component leads to the board being careful not to allow solder to bridge the cut lines in the copper. Cut off any excessive lead after soldering it. Bolt the Heat Sink on to the Triac with the fins pointing out. The Triac should be mounted in a vertical position, perpendicular to the CB. Next mount the CB in the box with 6-32 x 1" bolts and stand-offs. Finish soldering the connecting wires to the board before tightening the bolts. Drill 3 or 4 vent holes (1/4" dia) in the top of the box in the area above the Triac heat sink.

Plug the nichrome wire bow leads into the dual plug speaker connectors. It is best to trim the wire insulation on the wires back about 1/2 in. then tin the wire ends. After the wires are plugged in, turn the unit on and with the temperature control at half point and the heat switch set up to long. The wire should get hot to the touch almost immediately. If it doesn't, then examine the construction on the circuit board and wiring, and fix any errors found. After the unit is finished, bolt the top on and your and you're done.

When you use the foam cutter, be sure that the Bow switch is in the correct position. The switch must be in the "Short" position (down) if the 24" bow is used. Otherwise you may blow the fuse. Leave the unit in the "Long" bow position at all times unless you are using the short bow and you should have no problems. Before you turn the Foam Cutter on, turn the temperature (TEMP) control fully counter-clockwise, to minimum temperature. Turn the unit on with a bow plugged in and increase the temperature by turning the TEMP knob clockwise. The temperature of the wire increases almost immediately. With a piece of foam, test for the foam cutting temperature. Reduce the TEMP control until the cut is smooth with little foam evaporation around the wire. Remember, the smoothest cuts are made slowly. Spend some time practicing until your cuts are smooth. You will never go back to balsa ribs!

Lead Acid Battery Charger

Parts List:

C1 = 100uF/63V
C2 = 10uF/63V
D1 = 1N5401/NTE5801
D2 = LED (Red, 5mm)
Q1 = NTE374/BD140
Q2 = NTE123AP/BC547
R1 = 120 Ohm
R2 = 82 Ohm
R3 = 10K
R4 = 33K
R5 = 22K
P1 = 2K2
U1 = LM350 (On large coolrib!)


How it works:

Except for use as a normal Batter Charger, this circuit is perfect to 'constant-charge' a 12-Volt Lead-Acid Battery, like the one in your flight box, and keep it in optimum charged condition. This circuit is not recommended for GEL-TYPE batteries since it draws to much current.

The above circuit is a precision voltage source, and contains a temperature sensor with a negative temperature coëficient. Meaning, whenever the surrounding or battery temperature increases the voltage will automatically decrease. Temperature coëficient for this circuit is -8mV per °Celcius. A normal transistor (Q1) is used as a temperature sensor.

This Battery Charger is centered around the LM350 integrated, 3-amp, adjustable stabilizer IC. Output voltage can be adjusted with P1 between 13.5 and 14.5 volt. T2 was added to prevent battery discharge via R1 if no power present. P1 can adjust the output voltage between 13.5 and 14.5 volts. R4's value can be adjusted to accommodate a bit larger or smaller window. D1 is a large power-diode, 100V PRV @ 3 amp. Bigger is best but I don't recommend going smaller.

The LM350's 'adjust' pin will try to keep the voltage drop between its pin and the output pin at a constant value of 1.25V. So there is a constant current flow through R1. Q1 act here as a temperature sensor with the help of components P1/R3/R4 who more or less control the base of Q1. Since the emitter/base connection of Q1, just like any other semiconductor, contains a temperature coëficient of -2mV/°C, the output voltage will also show a negative temperature coëficient. That one is only a factor of 4 larger, because of the variation of the emitter/basis of Q1 multiplied by the division factor of P1/R3/R4. Which results in approximately -8mV/°C. To prevent that sensor Q1 is warmed up by its own current draw, I recommend adding a cooling rib of sorts.
(If you wish to compensate for the battery-temperature itself, then Q1 should be mounted as close on the battery as possible) The red led (D2) indicates the presence of input power.

Depending on what type of transistor you use for Q1, the pads on the circuit board may not fit exactly (in case of the BD140).

Caution: Adjust the voltage of capacitor C1 according to the input voltage. Example, if your input voltage will be 24 volt, your C1 should be able to carry at least 50V.

IC Controlled Emergency Light with Charger

The circuit shown here is that of the IC controlled emergency light. Its main features are: automatic switching-on of the light on mains failure and battery charger with overcharge protection. When mains is absent, relay RL2 is in deenergised state, feeding battery supply to inverter section via its N/C contacts and switch S1. The inverter section comprises IC2 (NE555) which is used in stable mode to produce sharp pulses at the rate of 50 Hz for driving the MOSFETs. The output of IC3 is fed to gate of MOSFET (T4) directly while it is applied to MOSFET (T3) gate after inversion by transistor T2. Thus the power amplifier built around MOSFETs T3 and T4 functions in push-pull mode.



The output across secondary of transformer X2 can easily drive a 230-volt, 20-watt fluorescent tube. In case light is not required to be on during mains failure, simply flip switch S1 to off position.

Battery overcharge preventer circuit is built around IC1 (LM308). Its non inverting pin is held at a reference voltage of approximately 6.9 volts which is obtained using diode D5 (1N4148) and 6.2-volt zener D6. The inverting pin of IC1 is connected to the positive terminal of battery. Thus when mains supply is present, IC1 comparator output is high, unless battery voltage exceeds 6.9 volts. So transistor T1 is normally forward biased, which energises relay RL1. In this state the battery remains on charge via N/O contacts of relay RL1 and current limiting resistor R2. When battery voltage exceeds 6.9 volts (overcharged condition), IC1 output goes low and relay RL1 gets deenergised, and thus stops further charging of battery. MOSFETs T3 and T4 may be mounted on suitable heat sinks.

Precision Metronome & Pitch generator

Precision Frequency generator 1 to 999 Hz
Precision Metronome 1 to 999 beats per minute

Circuit Diagram:


Parts:
R1__________1M 1/4W Resistor
R2_________22K 1/4W Resistor
R3__________6K8 1/4W Resistor
R4__________4K7 1/4W Resistor
R5_________47K 1/4W Resistor
R6________100K 1/4W Resistor
R7_________39K 1/4W Resistor
R8_________12K 1/4W Resistor
C1_________47pF 63V Ceramic Capacitor
C2_______2-22pF 63V Ceramic Trimmer
C3________470pF 63V Ceramic Capacitor
C4_________10pF 63V Ceramic Capacitor
C5________100nF 63V Polyester Capacitor
C6________220nF 63V Polyester Capacitor
C7_________22µF 25V Electrolytic Capacitor
D1-D15___1N4148 75V 150mA Diodes
IC1________4060 14 stage ripple counter and oscillator IC
IC2________4082 Dual 4 input AND gate IC
IC3________4520 Dual binary up-counter IC
IC4________4518 Dual BCD up-counter IC
IC5________4046 Micropower Phase-locked Loop IC
IC6________4040 12 stage ripple counter IC
Q1________BC337 45V 800mA NPN Transistor
XTAL______2.4576 MHz Miniature quartz crystal
SW1__________BCD Miniature Thumbwheel Switch (units)
SW2__________BCD Miniature Thumbwheel Switch (tens)
SW3__________BCD Miniature Thumbwheel Switch (hundreds)
SW4_________SPST Slider Switch (On-off)
SW5_________SPDT Slider Switch (Metronome-Pitch)
SPKR_______8 Ohm, 50 mm. Loudspeaker
B1_________9V PP3 Battery
Clip for 9V PP3 Battery

Circuit operation:

CMos IC1 and IC2B quad AND gate form a 2.4576 MHz crystal oscillator plus a 2400 times divider. IC3A provides further division by 16, delivering a 64 Hz stable frequency square wave. This frequency is multiplied (by means of Phase Locked Loop IC5, double decade divider IC4 and IC3B 4 bit binary divider) by the number set by three miniature BCD thumbwheel switches SW1, SW2 and SW3: units, tens and hundreds respectively.

Connecting, by means of SW5, Q1 base to pin 2 of IC6, we obtain (after a 64 times division) the same frequency set by thumbwheel switches with quartz precision, and no need for a scale indicator.

Volume regulation of the pitch generator is obtained trimming resistor R5. In the same way, with SW5 set to metronome, the small speaker reproduces the frequency set by thumbwheel switches but divided by 3840, thus obtaining beats per minute ratio.

Fuzz-box

All-FET design Valve-like distortion behavior


Parts:

P1______________10K Log. Potentiometer
R1_______________1M 1/4W Resistor
R2_______________3K3 1/4W Resistor
R3_______________2K2 1/4W Resistor
R4_______________5K 1/2W Trimmer (Cermet)
R5_____________100K 1/4W Resistor
C1,C4__________100nF 63V Polyester Capacitors
C2_____________100pF 63V Ceramic Capacitor
C3,C5___________22µF 25V Electrolytic Capacitors
Q1,Q2,Q3______2N3819 General-purpose N-Channel FETs
J1,J2__________6.3mm Mono Jack sockets
SW1_____________DPDT Toggle - Slider or Pedal Switch
SW2_____________SPST Toggle or Slider Switch
B1________________9V PP3 Battery
Clip for PP3 Battery

Comments:

This circuit was designed to obtain a valve-like distorted sound from an electric guitar or other musical instrument.

For this purpose a very high gain, three-FET amplifier circuit, was used. The output square wave shows marked rounded corners, typical of valve-circuits when driven into saturation.

Therefore, the distorted sound obtained from such a device has a peculiar tone, much loved by most leading guitarists.

Technical data:

1. Input sensitivity: 30mV RMS.
2. Output square wave: 6V peak-to-peak max.
3. Total current drawing: about 1mA.

Circuit set-up using oscilloscope and sine wave generator:
Connect a 1KHz sine wave generator to J1 and the oscilloscope to J2.
Adjust R4 until the output square wave shows equal mark-space ratio.

"By ear"

circuit set-up:

Connect a musical instrument to J1 and an amplifier to J2.
Carefully adjust R4 in order to obtain as maximum output sound intensity as possible.

UltraSonic Radar

This is a very interesting project with many practical applications in security and alarm systems for homes, shops and cars. It consists of a set of ultrasonic receiver and transmitter which operate at the same frequency. When something moves in the area covered by the circuit the circuits fine balance is disturbed and the alarm is triggered. The circuit is very sensitive and can be adjusted to reset itself automatically or to stay triggered till it is reset manually after an alarm.


How it Works

As it has already been stated the circuit consists of an ultrasonic transmitter and a receiver both of which work at the same frequency. They use ultrasonic piezoelectric transducers as output and input devices respectively and their frequency of operation is determined by the particular devices in use.

The transmitter is built around two NAND gates of the four found in IC3 which are used here wired as inverters and in the particular circuit they form a multivibrator the output of which drives the transducer. The trimmer P2 adjusts the output frequency of the transmitter and for greater efficiency it should be made the same as the frequency of resonance of the transducers in use. The receiver similarly uses a transducer to receive the signals that are reflected back to it the output of which is amplified by the transistor TR3, and IC1 which is a 741 op-amp. The output of IC1 is taken to the non inverting input of IC2 the amplification factor of which is adjusted by means of P1. The circuit is adjusted in such a way as to stay in balance as long the same as the output frequency of the transmitter. If there is some movement in the area covered by the ultrasonic emission the signal

that is reflected back to the receiver becomes distorted and the circuit is thrown out of balance. The output of IC2 changes abruptly and the Schmitt trigger circuit which is built around the remaining two gates in IC3 is triggered. This drives the output transistors TR1,2 which in turn give a signal to the alarm system or if there is a relay connected to the circuit, in series with the collector of TR1, it becomes activated. The circuit works from 9-12 VDC and can be used with batteries or a power supply.


Construction

First of all let us consider a few basics in building electronic circuits on a printed circuit board. The board is made of a thin insulating material clad with a thin layer of conductive copper that is shaped in such a way as to form the necessary conductors between the various components of the circuit. The use of a properly designed printed circuit board is very desirable as it speeds construction up considerably and reduces the possibility of making errors. Smart Kit boards also come pre-drilled and with the outline of the components and their identification printed on the component side to make construction easier. To protect the board during storage from oxidation and assure it gets to you in perfect condition the copper is tinned during manufacturing and covered with a special varnish that protects it from getting oxidised and also makes soldering easier. Soldering the components to the board is the only way to build your circuit and from the way you do it depends greatly your success or failure. This work is not very difficult and if you stick to a few rules you should have no problems. The soldering iron that you use must be light and its power should not exceed the 25 Watts. The tip should be fine and must be kept clean at all times. For this purpose come very handy specially made sponges that are kept wet and from time to time you can wipe the hot tip on them to remove all the residues that tend to accumulate on it. DO NOT file or sandpaper a dirty or worn out tip. If the tip cannot be cleaned, replace it. There are many different types of solder in the market and you should choose a good quality one that contains the necessary flux in its core, to assure a perfect joint every time. DO NOT use soldering flux apart from that which is already included in your solder. Too much flux can cause many problems and is one of the main causes of circuit malfunction. If nevertheless you have to use extra flux, as it is the case when you have to tin copper wires, clean it very thoroughly after you finish your work. In order to solder a component correctly you should do the following:

• Clean the component leads with a small piece of emery paper.
• Bend them at the correct distance from the component�s body and insert the component in its place on the board.
• You may find sometimes a component with heavier gauge leads than usual, that are too thick to enter in the holes of the p.c. board.
• In this case use a mini drill to enlarge the holes slightly. Do not make the holes too large as this is going to make soldering difficult afterwards.
• Take the hot iron and place its tip on the component lead while holding the end of the solder wire at the point where the lead emerges from the board. The iron tip must touch the lead slightly above the p.c. board.
• When the solder starts to melt and flow wait till it covers evenly the area around the hole and the flux boils and gets out from underneath the solder. The whole operation should not take more than 5 seconds. Remove the iron and allow the solder to cool naturally without blowing on it or moving the component. If everything was done properly the surface of the joint must have a bright metallic finish and its edges should be smoothly ended on the component lead and the board track. If the solder looks dull, cracked,or has the shape of a blob then you have made a dry joint and you should remove the solder (with a pump, or a solder wick) and redo it.
• Take care not to overheat the tracks as it is very easy to lift them from the board and break them.
• When you are soldering a sensitive component it is good practice to hold the lead from the component side of the board with a pair of long-nose pliers to divert any heat that could possibly damage the component.
• Make sure that you do not use more solder than it is necessary as you are running the risk of short-circuiting adjacent tracks on the board, especially if they are very close together.
• When you finish your work cut off the excess of the component leads and clean the board thoroughly with a suitable solvent to remove all flux residues that may still remain on it.
• There are quite a few components in the circuit and you should be careful to avoid mistakes that will be difficult to trace and repair afterwards. Solder first the pins and the IC sockets and then following if that is possible the parts list the resistors the trimmers and the capacitors paying particular attention to the correct orientation of the electrolytic.

Solder then the transistors and the diodes taking care not to overheat them during soldering. The transducers should be positioned in such a way as they do not affect each other directly because this will reduce the efficiency of the circuit. When you finish soldering, check your work to make sure that you have done everything properly, and then insert the IC�s in their sockets paying attention to their correct orientation and handling IC3 with great care as it is of the CMOS type and can be damaged quite easily by static discharges. Do not take it out of its aluminium foil wrapper till it is time to insert it in its socket, ground the board and your body to discharge static electricity and then insert the IC carefully in its socket. In the kit you will find a LED and a resistor of 560 � which will help you to make the necessary adjustments to the circuit. Connect the resistor in series with the LED and then connect them between point 9 of the circuit and the positive supply rail (point 1).

Connect the power supply across points 1 (+) and 2 (-) of the p.c. board and put P1 at roughly its middle position. Turn then P2 slowly till the LED lights when you move your fingers slightly in front of the transducers. If you have a frequency counter then you can make a much more accurate adjustment of the circuit. Connect the frequency counter across the transducer and adjust P2 till the frequency of the oscillator is exactly the same as the resonant frequency of the transducer. Adjust then P1 for maximum sensitivity. Connecting together pins 7 & 8 on the p.c. board will make the circuit to stay triggered till it is manually reset after an alarm. This can be very useful if you want to know that there was an attempt to enter in the place which are protected by the radar.

Componets:

R1 = 180 KOhm
R2 = 12 KOhm
R3, 8 = 47 KOhm
R4 = 3,9 KOhm
R5, 6, 16 = 10 KOhm
R7, 10, 12, 14, 17 = 100 KΩ
R9, 11 = 1 MOhm
R13, 15 = 3,3 KOhm
C1, 6 = 10uF/16V
C2 = 47uF/16V
C3 = 4,7 pF
C4, 7 = 1 nF
C5 = 10nF
C8, 11 = 4,7 uF/16
C9 = 22uF/16V
C10 = 100 nF
C12 = 2,2 uF/16V
C13 = 3,3nF
C14 = 47nF
TR1, 2, 3 = BC547 , BC548
P1 = 10 KOhm trimmer
P2 = 47 KOhm trimmer
IC1, 2 = 741 OP-AMP
IC3 = 4093 C-MOS
R = TRANSDUCER 40KHz
T = TRANSDUCER 40KHz
D1, 2, 3, 4 = 1N4148

Port-Powered Temperature Meter

This is a four-channel temperature measurmet adapter that works without external power supply. It will suitable for measureing temperature and logging its data with a PC. The circuit diagram is very simple and no adjustment is required, everybody will able to build it with ease :-)


Specs. Micro-controller ATtiny15L (Atmel)
Number of channels Four channels
Measurement Range -40°C to +105°C (0.1°C/step)
or raw A-D value
Measurement Error ±0.5°C (at room temperature)
Sensor 103AT (Semitec)
Power Supply Supplyed from COM port (typ. 5mA)
Cost Approx. 1200JPY (All parts)

HARDWARE

Micro-controller

I chose an Atmel ATtiny15L for this project. It is the only device that has a built-in 10bit A-D converter in the 8 pin AVRs. The A-D converter has a bandgap reference and differencial amplifire as its front-end. The AVR core is clocked by only internal RC oscillator (calibrated to 1.6MHz), any other clock souce cannot be used. Also 25.6MHz clock source that 16x multiplied from core clock is available for timer/counter. This means that a fast PWM output can be generated. Therefore the ATtiny15L has good analog I/O capabiltity.

In this project, the A-D converter is used as four channels, single-ended, no gain and VREF from Vcc configuration. However RSTDISBL fuse must be programmed in order to use pin #1 as one of the analog inputs, an AVR programmer that can program in HVS mode is required.

Power Supply

The devices that works on the COM port without external power supply, such as serial mouse, are powered from the COM port. When an application program opens COM port, ER and RS signals will go high. The high level voltage is from 6V to 12V at most PCs, and it can supply 5mA at least. This is sufficient for low power micro-controllers.

Sensors

Four 103AT precision thermisters are used as temperature sensor. Its variation is very small, its temperature - resistance error at room temperature is ±0.3°C. The error of series resisters should be within ±0.5% to enable calibration-free design.

FIRMWARE

The program only respond the values of each channel to the PC by trigger command. The temperature - resistance curve of the thermister is not linear so that the raw A-D value is linearlized and converted to temperature value in software process. When replace the thermister with any oters, the linearlization table in the source code must be re-built. The raw A-D value can also be read, it will be used as voltage meter.

The trigger command is one "T" or "R" character, returened results are the temperarute for "T" command, raw A-D value for "R" command. Each value is separated by a comma and terminated by a .

Free Firmware

Digital Capacitance Meter

This is a simple capacitance meter which can measure capacitance value easy. There are some measurement methods for capacitance, at one time the capacitance was measured with a impedance bridge or a dip meter. Recently typical capacitance meters can measure capacitance and some additional characteristics from current vector by applying AC voltage to the Cx. Some simple capacitance meter use integration method that measureing transient response of the R-C network. There are some construction kits based on this method.


This project uses the integration method. There is an advantage that the resulut can be got as a digital data directly because it bases measurement of time, accurate analog circuit is not required and its calibration can be done easy by using a micro controller. Therefor the integration method is suitable for hand built capacitance meter with high realizability.

Hardware

To measure a charge time, only a voltage comparator, a counter and some glue logics are needed. However, a microcntroller (AT90S2313) is used for this project to realize the system easy. In point of fact, I had thought that analog comparator in the AVR is not useful. But I found that the compare output can also be used as a captureing trigger of TC1. This is a nice feature for that use :-)
The integration circuit can be simplified like shown in the circuit diagram. The threshold voltage is generated by divider registers. It seems not stable to valiation of supply voltage however the charge time is not affected by the supply voltage. You will able to find that voltage terms can be erased when apply formure 2, VC1/E term is dtermined by only divide ratio. This advantage is the essence found in the NE555 timer IC. Ofcourse the supply voltage must be steady during integration.

According to the foundation, measure integration time with only one threshold voltage will do. However input voltage of near ground level is little difficult to use due to following reasons.

• Voltage not drop to 0 volt. Capacitor voltage will not be discharged to zero volt. It require a time to discharge capacitor to sufficientaly low voltage for measuring operation. It will expand measureing interval. Saturation voltage at discharge switch is also increase this effect.
• There is a time beween start to charge and then start timer. It will cause a measurement error. This can be ignored on the AVR because it requires only one clock cycle for that sequence. Any other microcontroller may rquire to consider this problem.
• Leakage current on analog input. Accrding to AVR data sheet, the leakage current on analog input is increased near zero volt. This will cause a measurement error.

To avoid to use near zero volt, two threshold voltages VC1(0.17 Vcc) and VC2(0.5 Vcc) are used and measure t2-t1(0.5RC). This can avoid avobe problems and comparator delay/offset will also be canceled. As for the leakage currnet, circuit board should be kept clean to minimize surface leak.

The supply voltage is generated with a DC-DC converter powered from a 1.5V AA cell. The swiching power supply is not suitable for measurement circuit but it seems not affected by ripple voltage because two ripple filters are applied. I recommend to use a 9V 6LR61 battery and a 78L05 instead, and do not omit BOD or you will be afflicted with EEPROM data collaption.
Calibration

When power is on first time, full segment, "E4" and ten several pF will be displayed. This value means stray capacitance on the circuit. The stray capacitance can be canceled by SW1. Two reference capacitors of 1nF and 100nF are needed to calibrate the capacitance meter. If you could not obtain the reference capacitors, accurate capacitors within ±1% can be used insted. This capacitance meter does not have any trimmer pot, it performs the calibration by reading the reference capacitor and saving gain adjustment value in full automatic operation.

To calibrate low range: First, adjust zero with SW1. Next, tie pin #1 and #3 of connector P1, set a 1nF reference capacitor and push SW1.

To calibrate high range: Tie pin #4 and #6 of connector P1, set a 100nF reference capacitor and push SW1.

"E4" at power on means calibration value in the EEPROM has been broken. It will never be displayed if once calibration is performed. As for zero adjustment, it is not saved into the EEPROM, it will require each time power-on or any jig is attached.

Free Firmware

Radio Spectrum Monitor

This is an experimental work to monitor a spectrum pattern in radio band, and is a continuous project from Audio Spectrum Monitor. To analyze the spectrum of an input signal, I chose an Atmel AVR micro controller that used in the Audio Spectrum Monitor to process FFT. When think it easy, it can be thought that sample an input RF signal directly and analyze it will do. However, you will able to recognize that there are some technical difficulties from following reasons.

1. The acquisition unit must have a sufficient speed and accuracy that covering over the radio frequency range. As for AM radio band like this project, fast 12 bit ADC and specific controller will able to cover this range. However there is no proper ADC for UHF band.
2. Number of samples to meet required frequency resolution, fSAMP/fFUND samples, becomes too large. When monitor an AM radio band around 1 MHz in frequency resolution of 500 Hz, over 4000 samples will be required at least. And when monitor a VHF band in same frequency resolution, how many samples will be required...

To solve this difficulties, there is a generic method called Frequency Conversion. In brief, down-convert the RF signal to lower frequency with a mixer (multiplyer) before sampling stage. When process the signals as complex signal for the frequency conversion, it can handle negative frequency, and the center frequency can be moved to zero hertz without interference by image signals. This means that the sampling frequency higher than span frequency range will do. When monitor a 100 MHz band in span of ±1 MHz, it will be converted down to 0±1 MHz and sampled it in only 2 Msps. You may able to understand easy when explain it as `cut and paste' on the frequency domain. Actually, this kind of radio spectrum monitors are being supplied from some radio equipment vendors.

Hardware

In this project, an intermediate frequency signal from mixer output of an AM radio (fC=455kHz) is used as an input signal. It is converted again down to zero hertz in complex signal, so that the signal path, mixer and local oscillator, must be composed for complex signal processing. The complex signal is expressed in two wire IQ signal, the real part corresponds to I signal and the imaginary part corresponds to Q signal. The arithmetic circuits for IQ signal are realized in method of complex arithmetic. For example, a mixing circuit for IQ signals requires four multipliers and two adders from the formula:

(a1+jb1)(a2+jb2) = (a1a2-b1b2)+j(a1b2+a2b1)

Therefore the analog process of IQ signal requires large scale circuit compared to real signal process, so that the IQ signal is usually digitized after minimal analog process and following process are done in digital processor. In case of one input is real, only two multiplyer will do. By the way, when view a real signal as a complex signal, its spectrum pattern of positive part and negative part is line symmetrical. Real signal can be saied that the imaginary part is always zero. The case of complex signal becomes such state is: there are conjugate complex numbers, changed sign of the imaginary part (changed sign of frequency), for each complex frequency components. Therefore the real signal has symmetrical spectrum around the origin.

Software

The firmware samples IQ signal, analyze it in FFT algorithm and draw spectrum pattern into LCD module. These processes are done in refresh rate of approximately 60 times per second. IQ signal is sampled 128 points in samplig rate of 64 ksps at a time, span frequency of ±32 kHz around local frequency (455 kHz) can be monitored. Now horizontal scale (frequency) is labeled on the LCD but when measure local frequency of the radio receiver, the tuned frequency will able to be displayed under the spectrum bars - I became aware this idea during writing this document and implemented it in a hurry:-) When a local input from receiver is valid, frequency scale is appered in the LCD and tuned frequency is refrected.

The fast FFT routine is copied from audio spectrm monitor as is. Basically, FFT algorithm is in complex input/output, it can be used for complex signal with no modification unless it is optimized for real input. When input is a real signal, only half of result is valid because it is symmetrical around the origin. Ofcourse each domain of output is valid when input is a complex signal.

When apply a power, a menu window will apper and can be set working condition with a joystick. Each item can be selected with up/down action, changed with right action and enter running mode with push action. In running mode, up action hold/resume display, down action resets peak hold (if selected), left action redo automatic null (offset cancellation of ADC input) and push action returns to menu. Window function can also be selected, you will able to recognize difference between each window. Wave form mode monitors raw IQ signal but it will not useless.

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Adjustment

1. Adjust local frequency to 455 kHz with TC1.
2. Apply 455+10 kHz, 100mVP-P sin wave to the input port and set I and Q signal as same amplitude and quadrature phase at ADC input with VR1 and VR2. And confirm that DC levels are Vcc/2 (a little offset is negligible) and no distortion is recognized.
3. Enter running mode. When a spectrum bar is 20 bins right from center, it is working successfully. If an image is appering at opposite position, adjust VR1 and VR2 to eliminate it carefully. A peak appearing center at start is due to left DC offset of IQ signal, it will be nulled automatically.

An AM super heterodyne radio receiver is used as a signal source. It may be modified to export mixer output and local oscillator output (this can be ommited). When it is a transister radio, large local frequency component (tuned freqency + IF) will pass through the mixer due to the mixer will be cheap emitter injection type. This affects dynamic range of DBM input, so that unnecessary signals above IF must be filtered out with a LPF. When IF frequency of radio receiver is 450 kHz, please read "455" in this page to "450".

GPS Data Logger

I have got a GPS module last year and I built a GPS data logger that records position data from the GPS module. The position data is output in NMEA-0183 format and store its sentence into any storage device. The position data can be processed with existing GPS utilities for interesting applications, such as Tracing the route on Google Maps (HTML source text).



Hardware



This is the inside of the built data logger and the circuit diagram. To store the tracking log, MMC/SDC is used for the recording media. The MMC/SDC is the most suitable purpose to collect the logged data to the PC. The GPS data logger is mainly used on automobile, so that its power supply circuit should pass the load dump surge immunity test. The operating power is got from only ACC line for good usability, and power switch is ommited. To detect brown-out and power-off, input supply voltage is monitored with the microcntroller. The controller part works at 3.0 volts and the GPS module works at 5.0 votls are tied via a level converters each other.

Software

When a positioning is established and a valid RMC sentence is detected, logging operation is started with a log file named in current UTC time YYMMDD.log. When same name is already existing, it starts to store from end of the file.

Because the operating power is got from ACC line, power-off will occure asynchronously regardless of the operating state. When power-off is occured, open file in write mode must be closed quickly during operating power is retaining in the capacitor, or the log file will be lost. In this project, when supply voltage is continuously below 8.0 volts for 10 milliseconds, it reecognizes that power-off and close the log file.

Free Firmware